Ley Ajuste Cubano tras fin de pies secos, pies mojados

Ley Ajuste Cubano tras fin de pies secos, pies mojados Por decisià ³n de enero de 2017, el gobierno de Estados Unidos no aplica la polà ­tica conocida como pies secos pies mojados para cubanos ni la visa CMPP para personal sanitario de esa misma nacionalidad en misiones en el exterior. Sin embargo, sigue vigente la Ley de Ajuste Cubano. En este artà ­culo se explica quà © era pies secos, pies mojados, cules son las opciones ahora para los cubanos para ingresar a Estados Unidos y cules son los puntos bsicos de Ley de Ajuste Cubano. Puntos clave: Pies secos, pies mojados Tà ©rminos clave en polà ­tica migratoria de EE.UU. hacia cubanos:Pies secos: Cubanos que lograban pisar suelo de EE.UU. o llegar a una de sus fronteras. Podà ­an ingresar como paroled aunque no tuvieran visa.Pies mojados: Cubanos interceptados en el mar intentando llegar a EE.UU. Eran regresados a Cuba o enviados a un tercer paà ­s.Fin de pies secos, pies mojados: 12 de enero de 2017Ley de Ajuste cubano: En vigor. Permite a los cubanos que ingresan legalmente a EE.UU. solicitar la tarjeta de residencia permanente despuà ©s de presencia de 1 aà ±o y 1 dà ­a.  ¿Quà © era la polà ­tica de pies secos, pies mojados para cubanos? La polà ­tica migratoria de Estados Unidos conocida como pies secos, pies mojados  aplicaba exclusivamente a los cubanos y significaba que las personas de esa nacionalidad intentando emigrar a EE.UU. podà ­an quedarse si tocaban suelo estadounidense y, por lo tanto, eran pies secos. Por el contrario, si eran encontrados en el mar intentando alcanzar las costas de Estados Unidos se les consideraba pies mojados y no se les permità ­a quedarse en el paà ­s y se les regresaba a la Isla o se les enviaba a un tercer paà ­s. Con el tiempo y en la prctica se desarrollà ³ una subcategorà ­a de pies secos, a los que se conocà ­a en inglà ©s como dusty foot, porque llegaban a la zona desà ©rtica de la frontera de Estados Unidos con Mà ©xico donde se presentaban ante un oficial fronterizo y pedà ­an el ingreso al paà ­s mediante un permiso provisional que se conocà ­a como parole y que les permità ­a estar en el paà ­s y trabajar mientras arreglaban los papeles. Tambià ©n podà ­an  calificar como pies secos los cubanos que llegaban por avià ³n a un aeropuerto de los Estados Unidos o alguno de sus territorios, como por ejemplo, Puerto Rico sin una visa vlida y pedà ­an asilo nada ms llegar.   Es decir, pies secos se aplicaba a los cubanos que llegaban ilegalmente a los Estados Unidos, esto es sin visa u otro documento vlido para ingresar.   En el aà ±o fiscal 2016, que finalizà ³ el 30 de septiembre de ese aà ±o, un total de 41.500 cubanos llegaron a territorio estadounidense sin documentos vlido para ingresar, pero ingresaron por pies secos pies mojados. En octubre y noviembre de ese aà ±o el nà ºmero fue de 7.000.  ¿Cà ³mo era el procedimiento de pies secos, pies mojados? Los pies mojados, o wet foot en inglà ©s, eran  regresados a Cuba o, si temà ­an que podrà ­an sufrir represalias y cumplà ­an las condiciones para ser considerados como asilados o refugiados, eran trasladados a un tercer paà ­s, como Ecuador o Espaà ±a, entre otros. Sin embargo, los cubanos considerados contrabandistas de personas eran  regresados a Cuba donde cumplà ­an pena de crcel, con o sin previa prisià ³n en los Estados Unidos. Por el contrario, los pies mojados podà ­an pedir  asilo y eran  entrevistados por al menos un oficial migratorio y ahà ­ se decidà ­a si se les permità ­a ingresar a Estados Unidos, ya que no siempre era posible como en el caso de tener ciertos antecedentes penales. Si los pies secos ingresaban  a Estados Unidos, lo hacà ­an como lo que se conoce tà ©cnicamente como paroled y no como admitted. Esta distincià ³n es importante desde el punto de vista de las leyes migratorias de Estados Unidos. A partir de ahà ­, los cubanos paroled podà ­an  solicitar una serie de beneficios sociales y/o econà ³micos. Adems, podà ­an solicitar un permiso de trabajo, un nà ºmero del Seguro Social, sacar la licencia de manejar en el estado en el que se asienten, etc. Asimismo, al mismo tiempo se iniciaba un proceso de peticià ³n de asilo. Es decir, no se concedà ­a el asilo automticamente, sino que simplemente, comenzaba la tramitacià ³n. Paralelamente sucedà ­a algo fundamental:  comenzaba a contar el tiempo para poder iniciar el proceso de solicitud de la green card, que es la tarjeta de residencia permanente, y que podrn hacer al cumplir el aà ±o y un dà ­a de haber ingresado, en aplicacià ³n de la Ley de Ajuste Cubano.   Como la fecha de un aà ±o y un dà ­a a contar desde el momento de ingreso a Estados Unidos llegaba antes de que se resolviera la peticià ³n de asilo, à ©sta se cancelaba y los pies secos mojados se convertà ­an en residentes permanentes legales con una tarjeta de green card.  ¿Cà ³mo pueden los cubanos ingresar a EE.UU. en la actualidad? Desde el 12 de enero de 2017 los cubanos deben tener una visa para ingresar a Estados Unidos. Si no la tienen y temen ser perseguidos pueden solicitar en un puerto fronterizo de los Estados Unidos el asilo, pero en las mismas condiciones que los migrantes de otros paà ­ses que tengan el mismo temor. Cabe destacar que para que se apruebe el asilo hay que temer una represalia o persecucià ³n por una de  5 razones especà ­ficas seà ±aladas en la ley.  ¿Quà © pasa con los cubanos que llegan a una frontera de los EE.UU. sin visa? Son regresados a Cuba, paà ­s que se ha comprometido ante Estados Unidos a readmitir a los no admitidos en Estados Unidos, siendo la excepcià ³n son los casos de asilo. Aquà ­ hay que ser muy prudentes a la hora de interpretar la ley, ya que el simple hecho de vivir en una dictadura o en un paà ­s comunista como es Cuba no es por sà ­ misma una razà ³n para que se apruebe una solicitud de asilo. Es necesario argumentar de un modo convincente la represià ³n a la persona que solicita el asilo y la razà ³n debe ser por una de las descritas en la ley de asilo. Adems, en la actualidad los cubanos que logren ingresar ilegalmente son deportados, al igual que el resto de los extranjeros. Tambià ©n pueden ser deportados aquellos cubanos que cometen delitos y/o infracciones migratorias que por ley pueden dar lugar a la expulsià ³n del paà ­s. Las à ºltimas estadà ­sticas muestran que aproximadamente en la actualidad unos 36.000 cubanos cuentan con orden de deportacià ³n, si bien por falta de acuerdo entre EE.UU. y Cuba la Isla no acepta a los migrantes cubanos con à ³rdenes de expulsià ³n con fecha anterior al 12 de enero de 2017, salvo casos particulares.  ¿Quà © pasa con la Ley de Ajuste Cubano? Esta ley, que data del 2 de noviembre de 1966, sigue en vigor. Esto significa que los cubanos presentes legalmente en los Estados Unidos podrn solicitar un ajuste de estatus al aà ±o y 1 dà ­a de haber ingresado a los Estados Unidos y convertirse, as,à ­ en residentes permanentes. No se debe confundir esta Ley con la polà ­tica de pies secos, pies mojados, que data de la presidencia de Bill Clinton. Al quedar pies secos pies mojados sin efecto, los cubanos en situacià ³n ilegal no podrn ajustar su estatus por Ley de Ajuste Cubano ni tampoco podrn ingresar a los Estados Unidos los que no tienen la visa correspondiente y no pueden alegar de forma convincente ante un oficial migratorio que solicitan asilo por una causa prevista en la ley. Trump, Cuba y polà ­tica internacional y migratoria Cada vez que hay un cambio en las normas migratorias, lamentablemente tambià ©n hay personas sin escrà ºpulos que desean tomar ventaja de la desesperacià ³n de las personas y aseguran que tienen contactos o que pueden hacer cosas que realmente no son posibles. A pesar de que en junio de 2017 el presidente Donald Trump modificà ³ ciertos aspectos de la polà ­tica estadounidense hacia Cuba cambiando importantes aspectos de la polà ­tica de Obama, lo cierto es que en materia migratoria todo sigue igual en este punto y que aplica ni pies secos, pies mojados ni la visa CMPP. Es aconsejable tener mucho cuidado con todos los posibles fraudes. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Chemical or Molecular Formula for Glucose

Chemical or Molecular Formula for Glucose The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6 or H-(CO)-(CHOH)5-H. Its empirical or simplest formula is CH2O, which indicates there are two hydrogen atoms for each carbon and oxygen atom in the molecule. Glucose is the sugar that is produced by plants during photosynthesis and that circulates in the blood of people and other animals as an energy source. Glucose is also known as dextrose, blood sugar, corn sugar, grape sugar,  or by its IUPAC systematic name  (2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5,6-Pentahydroxyhexanal. Key Glucose Facts The name glucose comes from the French and Greek words for sweet, in reference to must, which is the sweet first press of grapes when they are used to make wine. The -ose ending in glucose indicates the molecule is a carbohydrate.Because glucose has 6 carbon atoms, it is classified as a hexose. Specifically, it is an example of an aldohexose. It is a type of monosaccharide or simple sugar. It may be found in either linear form or cyclic form (most common).The hydrogen and -OH groups are able to rotate around the carbon atoms in glucose, leading to isomerization. The D-isomer, D-glucose, is found in nature and is used for cellular respiration in plants and animals. The L-isomer, L-glucose, is not common in nature, although it may be prepared in a lab.Pure glucose is a white or crystalline powder with a molar mass of 180.16 grams per mole and density of 1.54 grams per cubic centimeter. The melting point of the solid depends on whether it is in the alpha or beta conformation.  The mel ting point of  ÃŽ ±-D-glucose is  146  Ã‚ °C (295  Ã‚ °F; 419  K). The melting point of  ÃŽ ²-D-glucose is  150  Ã‚ °C (302  °F; 423 K). Why do organisms use glucose for respiration and fermentation rather than another carbohydrate? The reason is probably that glucose is less likely to react with the amine groups of proteins. The reaction between carbohydrates and proteins, called glycation, is a natural part of aging and consequence of some diseases (e.g., diabetes) that impairs the functioning of proteins. In contrast, glucose may be enzymatically added to proteins and lipids via the process of glycosylation, which forms active glycolipids and glycoproteins.In the human body, glucose supplies about 3.75 kilocalories of energy per gram. It is metabolized into carbon dioxide and water, producing energy in chemical form as ATP. While its needed for many functions, glucose is particularly important because it supplies nearly all the energy for the human brain.Glucose has the most stable cyclic form of all the aldohexoses because nearly all of its hydroxy group (-OH) are in the equatorial position. The exception is the h ydroxy group on the anomeric carbon. Glucose is soluble in water, where it forms a colorless solution. It also dissolves in acetic acid, but only slightly in alcohol.The glucose molecule was first isolated in 1747 by the German chemist Andreas Marggraf, who obtained it from raisins. Emil Fischer investigated the structure and properties of the molecule, earning the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.

Much of Volume 1 of Jane Eyre is predominately concerned with a Essay

Much of Volume 1 of Jane Eyre is predominately concerned with a child's sense of injustice. Do you think Jane's sense of injustice is justified Illustrate your answer by using textual examples - Essay Example She is an orphan left behind homeless at the death of both her parents when her mother’s brother Reed takes her in. He adores his sister’s daughter and on his death bed makes his wife promise that she would always look after Jane. Mrs Reed agrees, however, the promise is not fulfilled in the way it was meant to be. The Reeds live at Gateshead and here is where Jane spends the first ten years of her life at. Considering the fact that she is an orphan with only the Reeds as her known, living relatives and no one else, it would be thought that she would be treated like family, in such a way that she would not feel alone with the absence of her parents. Yet this is not the case. Jane is made to feel inferior at Gateshead repeatedly, she ‘is constantly differentiated, excluded (†¦) leaves her as an outsider to the Reed family’ (Peters 20). She is not treated like a family member, in fact, even worse than that. ‘Eliza, John, and Georgiana were now clustered round their mama in the drawing-room (†¦) Me, she had dispensed from joining the group’ (Bronte 3). This may be due to the various reasons regarding her lack of social status, her father being a poor minister; a passionate personality which was not quite the thing at that time; and plain looks, quite the opposite of what the Reed children were, Georgiana in particular as she says in the book that she is ‘humbled by the consciousness of my physical inferiority to Eliza, John and Georgiana Reed’ (Bronte 3). Even the servants believe that Jane’s station in life is below theirs since she is not, in all actuality, a part of the family. She has ‘no money’ (Bronte 7) nor does she do any work to earn her keep for living there. She is often lectured on even by the servants regarding how she should behave in front of her benefactor and how, if it has not been for her generous spirit, Jane would have been sent ‘to the

Cardiac Involvement in melanoma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cardiac Involvement in melanoma - Essay Example As it mainly affects the skin, it causes majority of skin cancer related deaths worldwide. At present, it is the sixth most common cancer in the United States, with the current lifetime risk for developing invasive melanoma is 1 case per 60 Americans, a 2000% increase since 1930. (Swetter, 2010). Cause of the disorder Melanoma is caused when the melanocytes are constantly exposed to sunlight, paving the way for Ultra-violet photons to strike the chromophore, a part of melanocyte. So, exposure to UV radiation clearly plays a role in melanoma. As people with history of sunburns, especially blistering sunburns during childhood or in teenage, are likely to show an augmented risk of developing melanoma. (aad.org). Another widely accepted caustic factor is genetics, with familial melanoma occurring mainly due to the chromosomes 1p, 9p and 12q. Having two or more close relatives who have had this disease is a risk factor. (medicinenet.com). Symptoms The symptoms of Melanoma, as mentioned ab ove, are any changes in the shape and color of the existing moles and also any new lump or lesions on the skin. The early symptoms of melanoma can be summarized by the mnemonic, â€Å"ABCD†. ‘A’ stands for Asymmetry and it means one half difference between the abnormal area and the other half.

Demonstrative Communication Essay Example for Free

Demonstrative Communication Essay Communication is an exchange of information, verbal pr written message and is the process of sending and receiving message. () With communication there must be a sender and a receiver for it to take place. In this paper I will provide examples how effective and ineffective demonstrative communication can be positive or negative on situations. Also I will explain how demonstrative communication involves listening and responding. Demonstrative communication is nonverbal and unwritten communication thought facial expression or body language. Effective ways for a sender and receiver to communicate in a demonstrative way would be to send the right message. Sender would want to make sure the receiver comprehends and understands the sender. For example Kinesics: â€Å"refers to the many behaviors of the body() these would include posture, gestures, and facial expressions. To make a positive gesture one could give the sender two thumbs up letting them know they did a great job. Letting the sender know they understand the message. A negative gestures would be a frown or to raise an eyebrow. This would provide feedback to the sender letting them know you disagree. Effective communication is a two way street for the sender and receiver. Ineffective ways for sender and receiver to communicate would be if the sender was demanding or ordering the receiver for something, and persuading or lecturing them. For example, using words like you must this may make the receiver think you are being demanding and they may resent you. Lecturing the receiver is another negative way to communicate with them. This may cause them to feel like they are wrong. Hepatic is a powerful form of communication. This would include giving the sender a pat on the back letting them knows you understand and everything was great. A native communication result would be a slap in the face. This would lead to many problems. Demonstrative communication between the sender and receiver will be positive if the sender does not overload the receiver with to much information at one time. If the receiver provides active listening or reading, this will allow the receiver to engage in what the sender is trying to get across to them. Demonstrative communication can also be negative if the receiver has a lack of eye contact or crossing of the arms. Things like this tell the sender one may not be interested in their message they are trying to get across. Provide feedback is a part of responding and giving the sender insurances that you are listening and understood what was being said. With demonstrative communication for example, one can respond by providing feedback like, What Im hearing is† This lets the sender know you are listening to the message.

Analysis of Emily Dickinsons Because I Could Not Stop for Death Essay

Analysis of Emily Dickinson's "Because I Could Not Stop for Death" In regard to Emily Dickinson’s poem, â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop for Death,† Critic Eunice Glenn says: â€Å"In the first two lines Death, personified as a carriage driver, stops for one who could not stop for him. The word ‘kindly’ is particularly meaningful, for it instantly characterizes Death. This comes with surprise, too, since death is more often considered grim and terrible† (Glenn). Critic Charles R. Anderson says, â€Å"Death, usually rude, sudden, and impersonal, has been transformed into a kindly and leisurely gentleman† (Anderson). Both critics seem to agree on the significance of the word â€Å"kindly† in the first two lines of the poem. â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death— / He kindly stopped for me—† (1-2). They take the word â€Å"kindly† for its most common definitions—agreeable, pleasant, benevolent, etc. With further research, however, alternative, as well as more enlightening, definitions become available. The Oxford English Dictionary defines kindly as: â€Å"In accordance with nature; naturally; by natural disposition; characteristically† and â€Å"In the way suitable or appropriate to the nature of the thing; properly, fittingly† (â€Å"Kindly†). These definitions add new insight to the poem. In the superficial sense, Death seemingly performed a charitable act by stopping for the speaker; in application of these less common definitions, however, Death stopping for the speaker was necessary and proper. It was following a fter the natural course of things. Rather than merely suggesting the Death was a charming, courteous carriage driver, the speaker implies that Death was obligated to stop for her; she is unable to stop for him. It is inter... ...s of conducting mortals into eternity. —JAIME SORENSEN, Brigham Young University, Idaho Works Cited Anderson, Charles R. Modern American Poetry. 1 Jan 2002. University of Illinois. 13 Sept. 2005 uiuc.edu/maps/poets/a_f/dickinson/712.htm>. Dickinson, Emily. â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop for Death.† The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Ed. Thomas H. Johnson. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1960. Engle, Patricia. â€Å"Dickinson’s ‘Because I Could Not Stop For Death.’† The Explicator 60(2002): 72-75. Glenn, Eunice. Modern American Poetry. 1 Jan 2002. University of Illinois. 13 Sept. 2005 /poets/a_f/dickinson/712.htm>. Kennedy, X.J., Dana Gioia, and Mark Bauerlein. Handbook of Literary Terms. Chelmsford: Courier Corp.,2005.â€Å"Kindly.† Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989.

Carbohydrate and Peptide †Based Vaccines: The Way Forward

Abstract Existing treatments and therapies have supported a huge variety of diseases and infections, a significant example being antibiotics. However the increasing presence of multi-resistant bacteria, as well as increased changes observed in the mechanisms responsible for variation in viruses, involving accumulation of mutations within the genes that code for antibody-binding sites (known as antigenic drift), has resulted in these new strains not being inhibited as effectively by those treatments that originally targeted them (Reche, Fernandez-Caldas, Flower, Fridkis-Hareli and Hoshino, 2014). The knock-on effect has been that the bacteria or virus is able to spread more easily, and therapeutic treatments (used after a person contracts a disease), become less effective, unable to work by boosting the host’s own immune system. As a result, it has been recognised that the vaccine offers the advantage of preventing the anticipation of disease occurrence, using advance action to countera ct infection and chronic illness. Prophylactic, and to a lesser extent therapeutic, vaccines are the most cost-effective and efficient alternative to other treatments and prevention of infectious and chronic diseases. They work by causing changes to the T- and B-cells of the adaptive immune system to eliminate or prevent pathogen growth (Plotkin, Orenstein, and Offit, 2013). Going back to the introduction of vaccines more than 200 years ago, these were initially composed of killed pathogens, which although successful, also caused unacceptably high levels of adverse reactions. During the years of research that have since followed, as with the changes observed with antibiotics and other treatments becoming less effective, the need for safer and more effective vaccines has also been acknowledged. In addition, an improved understanding of antigen presentation and subsequent recognition has supported the development of newer vaccine types (Flower, 2013). Equally, whilst many diseases and infections are controlled by vaccines, for some, no vaccines have been developed, including Streptococcus pyogenes, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) (Wang and Walfield, 2005; Barrett and Stanberry, 2009). Efforts to develop new vaccines are discussed in more details, with a focus on peptide-based and carbohydrate-based vaccines. Challenges are also discussed, leading to a summary of the potential direction of vaccination and research, which describes a promising future. Peptide-based vaccines An example of a newer category of vaccine is peptide-based vaccines. Peptides are short sequences of proteins, and diseases/infections use these proteins as part of their attack on the immune system. In many cases, the immune system has the ability to recognise the proteins associated with an attack by disease or infectious causing pathogens and can respond effectively. However as observed with many cancers, HIV, HCV and other conditions, an effective immune response is not triggered, hence the need for newer vaccine developments including those based on peptides, which encompass single proteins or synthetic peptides encompassing many antigenic determinants (B- and T-cell epitopes) (Flower, 2013). Peptide vaccines are a type of subunit vaccine, which presents an antigen to the immune system, using the peptide of the original pathogen, supporting immunity. Such peptide-based vaccines avoid the adverse effects described with traditional whole-organism vaccines (Moisa and Kolesanova, 20 12) with additional benefits also noted (Ben-Yedidia and Arnon, 1997), including: The absence of infectious material An immune response that is specific, focusing only on the targeted epitope, with the induction of site-specific antibodies No risk of an immune attack or cross-reactivity with the host tissues Flexibility, with an ability to modify products accordingly Improved effectiveness in relation to manufacturing on a large scale, and long-term storage where necessary e.g. a pandemic. However, a number of difficulties have been encountered during the development of such vaccines (Simerska, Moyle and Toth, 2011; Dudek, Perlmutter, Aguilar, Croft and Purcell, 2010) including: A short biological activity of peptides due to degradation by enzymes The trigger of a weak immune response when used alone i.e. single peptides Finding optimal delivery systems. As a result, and to overcome the difficulties mentioned above, synthetic peptide vaccines have been developed, on the basis that a greater more accurately targeted immune response will be achieved. Peptide antigens are not immunogenic by themselves, so this has led to investigations into co-administration of subunit peptide antigens with adjuvants (immunostimulants) to increase the peptide-induced responses to corresponding antigens. Appropriate delivery systems and often toxic adjuvants have demonstrated effective immunity, however, although many adjuvants are described in the literature, only a few have been approved for use with vaccines for delivery in humans due to their toxicity and include water/oil emulsions, liposomes, and bacterial lipophilic compounds to offer a few examples (Heegaard et. al., 2010). Incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (IFA) and Montanide ISA (both oil-based) have been used in clinical trials. Focusing on liposomes as another example, researchers have demo nstrated that use of lipid core peptide (LCP) technology (lipidation of peptides) improves the effectiveness of a self-adjuvanting vaccine delivery system, targeting a specific disease and triggering an effective immune response. This system provides a promising platform for human vaccine development (Zhong, Skwarczynski and Toth, 2009; Moyle and Toth, 2008). In animal models, peptide vaccines have been effective in generating the required immune response, and during recent years, peptide-based vaccines have advanced from animal models and pre-clinical studies, to human clinical trials (Yang et al., 2001). Although currently, all known peptide vaccines under development for humans remain at the stage of clinical trials, these trials should build on the promising evidence resulting from research to date of the potential application of vaccine candidates based on a LCP system, as well as other strategies. Prevention of not only many infectious diseases including hepatitis C virus, mal aria, human immunodeficiency virus and group A streptococci), but also for cancer immunotherapy and improved allergen specific tolerance, remains an exciting, and very real possibility. Carbohydrate-based vaccines The development of vaccines based on carbohydrates not only has quite a history, but is also an area that is fast moving in the current research world. The literature provides evidence as far back as the early 1900s where researchers discovered a connection between type-specific polysaccharides and the induction of antibodies being developed against certain types of pneumococci (Francis and Tillett, 1930). This was confirmed by evidence of pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides being used as vaccines, providing effective and long lasting immunity (Heidelberger, Dilapi, Siegel and Walter, 1950). However despite these early findings, the discovery and success of other treatments such as antibiotics and chemotherapeutics led to this area of research being put on hold. As mentioned earlier however, due to increased resistance to existing treatments such as antibiotics, coupled with the recognition for a need of newer treatments including improved vaccines, renewed interest into preventive vaccines has resulted in novel approaches, which include carbohydrate vaccines. Vaccines are commonly made from weakened pathogens, or, as we now know, other approaches also use immunogenic proteins or polysaccharides. Carbohydrates have been the centre of attention in the research field of vaccination because not only do they exhibit more stability than proteins, but they have roles in both physiology and pathophysiology, including cell interaction and signalling, inflammation, pathogen host adhesion/recognition, to name a few examples (Doshi, Shanbhag, Aggarwal, Shahare and Martis, 2011). During the last ten years or so, they have been used as adjuvants, as carriers for protein antigens to aid immunotherapy, and as targets for vaccines against bacteria. Additionally, as observed with DNA and proteins, carbohydrates are now recognised as biopolymers also, playing a role in many molecular and biological activities (Doshi et. al., 2011). These discoveries, partnered by an improved u nderstanding of the immune system and the identification of specific and relevant carbohydrate structures, led to the development of glycoconjugates, which in turn led to carbohydrate vaccine development (Holemann and Seeberger, 2004). Glycoconjugates are present in the surfaces of cells, as well as in the surrounding extracellular matrices and connective tissue. Therefore both the identified structure and presence of glyconjugates, plus the role they play, means they are a suitable basis for the development of new vaccines. Induction of protective antibodies is key to an effective immune response as a result of a vaccine, and as with peptide vaccines, challenges have been evident in the research to develop effective carbohydrate vaccines, including the following: Glycans struggle to effectively induce protective antibodies Carbohydrates have a low immunogenic impact by themselves (as observed with peptides). There are two main carbohydrate vaccine types: 1. Natural carbohydrate vac cines: these include small amounts of impurities 2. Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines: these are produced with no contaminants, and are cost-effective due large-scale production. Synthetic carbohydrate antigens used to develop vaccines have triggered immune responses in clinical studies and are favourable given the risk of adverse effects with natural vaccines. Four crucial aspects need to be considered for the design of carbohydrate-based vaccines (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): The antigen source: glycan antigens are diverse, ranging from large polysaccharide capsules, to small monosaccharides, to oligosaccharides, all of which have been shown to be adequate for preparation of vaccines. The carrier: this is most often proteins, although other materials have been investigated, with the aim of ensuring that the link between the antigen and the carrier is specific. The method of conjugation (or ligation): protein conjugates, lipid conjugates and polyvalent scaffold conjugates have been d eveloped. The success of a conjugate vaccine depends partly on the method of conjugation employed. This should be simple and efficient, as well as causing minimal distortion to the individual components involved, with many differing techniques used (Zou & Jennings, 2009; Ada and Isaacs, 2003). The choice of adjuvant: required to improve immunogenicity of the carbohydrate antigens being targeted, with a limited choice approved for use in humans. Examples of diseases targeted by carbohydrate-based vaccines The discussion will now move on to the use of carbohydrate-based vaccines in three disease areas: Group A Streptococcus (GAS), HIV/AIDS and Haemophilus influenza type b. GAS The need for a safe, effective, affordable and practical vaccine against GAS (also known as Streptococcus pyogenes), has been recognised for many years, as has the research into a vaccine against this disease, given the global burden on health that this disease causes in particular in less developed countries. More than 500,000 deaths result from the GAS each year, with the bacteria causing a range of both less complicated and life-threatening illnesses (Carapetis, Steer, Mulholland and Weber, 2005). The diversity of GAS strains is the major challenge for the development of an anti-GAS vaccine, with more than 100 different strains identified, of which the genetic sequence for several different strains have been determined (Johnson and Pinto, 2002). Rese arch has identified that GAS bacteria contain a surface polysaccharide made up of long, repetitive polysaccharide chains. The conserved and constant arrangement of these chains suggests conjugate vaccines to be an attractive and achievable option, with animal models supporting this theory (Cunningham, 2000). Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines, although only studied in a limited set of GAS infections, have demonstrated a protective immune response (Robbins et al., 2009). In addition, some areas of research have focused on the molecular analysis of a surface protein labelled the M protein, which is encoded by the emm gene. This particular gene has been found to be the major cause of GAS related clinical manifestations (Smeesters, McMillan and Sriprakash, 2010). These findings have allowed a greater understanding of the functioning of specific proteins responsible for the virulence of the disease, which in turn, supports the development of potential GAS vaccines. Vaccine prevention of GAS and the resulting symptoms and complications has been a goal of researchers for many years. A number of vaccines have been in research development to offer protection against GAS, with the research vaccine strategies focusing on either M protein, or non-M protein antigens (Smeesters, 2014). However only those vaccines that use the M protein as the antigen have progressed to clinical trials (McNeil et. al., 2005), and have included conserved antigens coverage across the many strains of GAS, a type-specific vaccine based on the N-terminal portion of the M protein, and a recombinant vaccine that reached phase II clinical trials (Pandey, Wykes, Hartas, Good and Batzloff, 2013; Bauer, 2012). However no vaccine has currently reached licensing and so the diseases caused remain uncontrolled in many areas, with reviews covering the research suggesting that even those vaccines developed with the aim of providing large coverage of GAS strains, these vaccine might achieve acceptable coverage i n developed countries, but in less developed countries where the disease burden is much greater, the positive impact of the vaccines would be much lower due to a greater strain diversity (Smeesters, McMillan, Sriprakash, and Georgousakis, 2009; Steer, Law, Matatolu, Beall and Carapetis, 2009; McMillan and Sanderson, 2013). Equally, antibiotic treatment is either impractical with regards to implementation (specifically in less developed countries) or ineffective. One research group targeted the bacteria by synthesising a new self-adjuvanting vaccine candidate, incorporating a carbohydrate carrier and an amino acid-based adjuvant, resulting in successful synthesis and characterisation of the vaccine candidate. This may contribute to the identification of a safe and effective vaccine against GAS in the future (Simerska et. al., 2008; Simerska, Lu and Toth, 2009). HIV/AIDS One of the main challenges researchers have faced within the field of vaccine development against HIV/AIDS, is that the virus surface is covered with layers of glycans, which conceal underlying viral antigens that are potential good targets in the production of vaccines (Scanlan, Offer, Zitzmann, and Dwek, 2007). They are produced by the host cell, which makes the virus appear as â€Å"self† resulting in no attack being triggered by the host immune system. The layers of carbohydrate also contain mannose residues, making these another potential target for a vaccine aimed at preventing HIV infection, whereby lectins preferentially bind to ? 1-2 linked mannose residues. Such lectins are being investigated as possible therapeutic tools (Tsai et al., 2004) although the fact that lectins are often toxic needs to be researched further to avoid the host immune system damaging host cells. Indeed, other drugs that are known to inhibit synthesis of carbohydrates only have this effect at often toxic concentrations to cause antiviral activity. Another strategy based on the same principle of developing a carbohydrate vaccine, is the identification of antibodies that again recognise and bind to glycans. (Scanlan et al., 2002, Scanlan et al., 2007). The antibody appears to recognize these glycans because although they belong to the host, they are arranged in a â€Å"non-self† manner (Scanlan et al., 2002; Scanlan et al., 2007), making the production of effective ant-HIV vaccines a real possibility, in addition to vaccines for other diseases such as cancer (Galonic and Gin, 2007). Studies have also been described using immune enhancing adjuvants, carrier peptides such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin and altered glycan structure constructs that support immune recognition in the development of vaccines against cancer (Galonic and Gin, 2007). These same strategies are being used in development of possible HIV vaccines, where antibodies target self-carbohydrates arranged slightly differently on cancer cells and HIV-infected cells, in comparison to healthy cells. (Galonic and Gin, 20 07). These approaches have not as yet led to clinically effective vaccines, but it is clear that antibodies that strongly bind to carbohydrate antigens on, for example, prostate cancer cells, have been generated (Slovin et al., 2003) and this appears to be a highly promising approach. Further exploration is required based on the carbohydrate coat of the virus, which may lead to improved prevention treatment of HIV. Haemophilus influenza type b The first synthetic vaccine for human application was developed in 2003 for protection against Haemophilus influenza type b vaccine, not only providing protection against this bacterium, but also against all the associated diseases it causes ranging from meningitis, septicaemia, pneumonia and arthritis (Doshi, Shanbhag, Aggarwal, Shahare and Martis, 2011). Indeed this bacterium is the leading cause of serious illnesses in children under 5 years worldwide. The majority of strains of Haemophilus influenza are non-encapsulated, and are lacking in any carbohydrate polysaccharide protective structure, as opposed to the GAS bacteria and HIV virus described earlier. This structural information armed researchers with the knowledge that carbohydrate polysaccharide conjugate vaccines would be required to ensure the development of an effective vaccine (Verez-Bencomo et. al., 2004). As a result, carbohydrate-based vaccines have been licensed for protection in humans against haemophilus influenza type b, using oligomerization and a carrier protein (Doshi et. al., 2011).Evidence of progressTo end this section of the discussion, several conjugate polysaccharide carbohydrate vaccines are now well into pre-clinical/clinical development, or have been licensed and are now commercially available. Examples of licensed vaccines include the following (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) – 4 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via 3 different pharmaceutical companies: ActHIB and Hiberix; Pentacel; PedvaxHIB; and Comvax Neisseria meningitides A, C, Y and W-135 – 2 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via the same pharmaceutical company: Menactra; and Menomune-A/C/Y/W-135 Salmonella typhi – 1 carbohydrate- based vaccine is licensed: TYPHIM Vi Streptococcus pneumonia variants – 2 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via 2 different pharmaceutical companies: Prevnar; and Pneumovax 23. Examples of carbohydrate-based vaccines in development include the following, where the disease is described in addition to the phase of development (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): Breast cancer – with 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase and a second at phase I Prostate cancer – 4 vaccines are in development at the preclinical, phase I and phase II stages HIV-1 – 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase Group A streptococcus – 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase Group B streptococcus – 1 vaccine at phase II. Conclusion It is fact that vaccines have had a major role to play in the success of preventing and treating many diseases, however many challenges remain. Diseases exist for which no effective vaccines have yet been discovered, including HIV/AIDs. In addition, diseases that have been controlled by vaccines in some parts of the world continue to affect the lives of people adversely in other areas where infrastructures for vaccination are poor/non-existent. Continued research is necessary to develop vaccines not only for those diseases with no vaccine available, but also to improve the effectiveness of existing vaccines. In addition to research focusing on novel and promising approaches such as carbohydrate and peptide based vaccines, efforts also need to concentrate on areas such as lower cost, more convenient delivery of vaccines, and longer-term protection. The future direction of research in this field has become focused with the help of new evidence-based information and promising data. The advent of synthetic peptide-based and carbohydrate-based vaccines signified a new era for vaccines, over-taking traditional treatments and vaccines which have become either ineffective or only offer short term protection. As the discussion demonstrates, a number of vaccines are already successfully protecting humans against some pathogens and disease, with the potential for further vaccines to follow. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, it should be remembered that unlike drug-based medicines, vaccines primarily offer a cure, a goal all aim to achieve. Word count: 3130 (excluding references) References Ada, G. & Isaacs, D. (2003). Carbohydrate-protein conjugate vaccines. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 9(2): p. 79-85. Astronomo, R.D. & Burton, D.R. (2010). Carbohydrate vaccines: developing sweet solutions to sticky situationsNature Reviews: Drug Discovery. 9: p. 30-324. Barrett, A.D.T. & Stanberry, L.R. (Eds.). (2009). Vaccines for Biodefense and Emerging and Neglected Diseases. Elsevier Inc., ISBN 978-0-3-69408-9. Bauer M.J., Georgousakis M.M., Vu T., Henningham A., Hofmann A., Rettel M., Hafner L.M., Sriprakash K.S. & McMillan D.J. (2012). Evaluation of novel streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidates incorporating multiple conserved sequences from the C-repeat region of the M-protein. Vaccine. 30(12): p. 2197-2205. Ben-Yedidia, T. & Arnon, R. (1997). Design of Peptide and Polypeptide Vaccines. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 8(4): p. 442-448). Carapetis, J.R., Steer, A.C., Mulholland E.K. & Weber, M. (2005). The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 5(11): p. 685-694. Cunningham M. (2000). Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 13: p. 470-511. Doshi, G.M., Shanbhag, P.P., Aggarwal, G.V., Shahare, M.D. & Martis, E.A. Carbohydrate Vaccines- A burgeoning field of Glycomics. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 1(02): p. 17-22. Dudek, N.L., Perlmutter, P., Aguilar, M.I., Croft, N.P. & Purcell, A.W. (2010). Epitope discovery and their use in peptide based vaccines. Curr Pharm Des. 16: p. 3149-3157. Flower, D.R. (2013). Designing immunogenic peptides. Nature Chemical Biology. 9(12): p. 749–753. Francis Jr, T. & Tillett, W.S. (1930). Cutaneous reactions in pneumonia. The development of antibodies following the intradermal injection of type-specific polysaccharide. J. Exp. Med. 52: p. 573–585. Galonic, D.P. & Gin, D.Y. (2007). Chemical glycosylation in the synthesis of glycoconjugate antitumour vaccines. Nature. 446: p. 1000–7. Heegaard, P.M.H., Dedieu, L., Johnson, N., Le Potier, M-F., Mockey, M., Mutinelli, F., Vahlenkamp, T., Vascellari, M. & Sorensen, N.S. (2010). Adjuvants and delivery systems in veterinary vaccinology: current state and future developments. Arch Virol. 156(2):p. 183-202. Heidelberger, M., Dilapi, M.M, Siegel, & Walter, A.W. (1950). Persistence of antibodies in human subjects injected with pneumococcal polysaccharides. J. Immunol. 65l: pp. 535–541. Holemann, A. & Seeberger, P. (2004). Carbohydrate diversity: Synthesis of glycoconjugates and complex carbohydrates. Curr Opin In Biotech. 15(1): p. 615-622. Johnson, M.A. & Pinto, B.M. (2002). Saturation transfer difference 1D-TOCSY experiments to map the topography of oligosacchraides recognised by a monoclonal antibody directed against the cell-wall polysaccharide group A streptococcus. J Am Chem Soc. 124: p. 15368-15374. McMillan, D.J., Sanderson-Smith, M.L., Smeesters, P.R. & Sriprakash, K.S. (2013). Molecular markers for the study of streptococcal epidemiology. Current topics in microbiology and immunology. 368: p. 29-48. McNeil, S.A., Halperin, S.A., Langley, J.M., Smith, B., Warren, A., Sharratt, G.P., Baxendale, D.M., Reddish, M.A., Hu, M.C., Stroop, S.D., Linden, J., Fries, L.F., Vink, P.E. & Dale, J.B. (2005). Safety and immunogenicity of 26-valent group A streptococcus vaccine in healthy adult volunteers. Clin Infect Dis. 41(8): p. 1114-22. Moisa, A.A. & Kolesanova, E.F. (2012). Synthetic Peptide Vaccines, Insight and Control of Infectious Disease in Global Scenario. Dr. Roy Priti (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0319-6. Moyle, P.M. & Toth, I. (2008). Self-adjuvanting lipopeptide vaccines. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 15: p. 506–516. Pandey, M., Wykes, M.N., Hartas, J., Good, M.F. & Batzloff M.R. (2013). Long-term antibody memory induced by synthetic peptide vaccination is protective against Streptococcus pyogenes infection and is independent of memory T cell help. Journal of immunology. 190(6): p. 2692-701. Plotkin, S.A., Orenstein, W.A. & Offit, P,A. Eds (2013). Vaccines. 6th ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier/Saunders. Reche, P.A., Fernandez-Caldas, E., Flower, D.R., Fridkis-Hareli, M. & Hoshino, Y. (2014). Peptide-Based Immunotherapeutics and Vaccines. Journal of Immunology Research. Editorial. 2014: 2 pages. Robbins, J.B., Kubler-Kielb, E., Vinogradov, E., Mocca, C., Pozsgay, V., Shiloach, J. & Scheerson, R. (2009). Synthesis, characterisation, and immunogenicity in mice of Shigella sonnei O-specific, oligosaccharide-core-protein conjugates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 106: p. 7974-7978. Scanlan, C.N., Pantophlet, R., Wormald, M.R., Ollmann Saphire, E., Stanfield, R., Wilson, I.A., Katinger, H., Dwek, R.A., Rudd, P.M. & Burton, D.R. (2002). The broadly neutralizing anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2G12 recognizes a cluster of alpha1>2 mannose residues on the outer face of gp120. J Virol. 76: p. 7306–21. Scanlan, C.N., Offer, J., Zitzmann, N. & Dwek, RA. (2007). Exploiting the defensive sugars of HIV-1 for drug and vaccine design. Nature. 446: p. 1038–45. Simerska, P.,Abdel-Aal, A.B.M, Fujita, Y., Batzloff, Good, M.F. & Toth, I. (2008). Synthesis and in vivo studies of carbohydrate-based vaccines against group A Streptococcus. Peptide Science. 90(5): p. 611-616. Simerska, P., Lu, H. & Toth, I. (2009). Synthesis of a Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidate based on the M protein PL1 epitope. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 19(3): p. 821-824. Simerska, P., Moyle, P.M. & Toth, I. (2011). Modern lipid-, carbohydrate-, and peptide-based delivery systems for peptide, vaccine, and gene products. Med Res Rev. 31: p. 520-47. Slovin, S.F., Ragupathi, G., Musselli, C., Olkiewic,z K., Verbel,D., Kuduk, S.D., Schwarz, J.B., Sames, D., Danishefsky, S., Livingston, P.O. & Scher, H.I. (2003). Fully synthetic carbohydrate-based vaccines in biochemically relapsed prostate cancer: clinical trial results with alpha-N-acetylgalactosamine-O-serine/threonine conjugate vaccine. J Clin Oncol. 21:p. 4292–8. Smeesters, P.R., McMillan, D.J. and Sriprakash, K.S. (2010). The streptococcal M protein: a highly versatile molecule. Trends Microbiol. 18: p. 275-282. Smeesters, P.R., McMillan, D.J., Sriprakash, K.S. & Georgousakis, M.M. (2009). Differences among group A streptococcus epidemiological landscapes: consequences for M protein-based vaccinesExpert Rev Vaccines. 8(12): p. 1705-20. Smeesters, P.R. (2014). Immunity and vaccine development against Streptococcus pyogenes: is emm-typing enoughProc Belgian Roy Acad Med. 3: p. 89-98. Steer, A.C., Batzloff, M.R., Mulholland, K. & Carapetis, J.R. (2009). Group A streptococcal vaccines: facts versus fantasy. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 22(6): p. 544-552. Steer, A.C., Law, I., Matatolu, L., Beall, B.W. & Carapetis, J.R. (2009). Global emm type distribution of group A streptococci: systematic review and implications for vaccine development. Lancet Infect Dis. 9(10): p. 611-6. Tsai, C.C., Emau, P., Jiang, Y., Agy, M.B., Shattock, R.J., Schmidt, A., Morton, W.R., Gustafson, K.R., Boyd & M.R. (2004). Cyanovirin-N inhibits AIDS virus infections in vaginal transmission models. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 20(1): p. 11–18. Verez-Bencomo, V., Fernandez-Santana, V., Hardy, E., Toledo, M.E., Rodriguez, M.C., Heynngnezz, L., Rodriguez, A., Baly, A., Herrera, L., Izquierdo, M., Villar, A., Valdes, Y., Cosme, K., Deler, M.L., Montane, M., Garcia, E., Ramos, A., Aguilar, A., Medina, E., Torano, G., Sosa, I., Hernandez, I., Martinez, R., Muzachio, A., Carmenates, A., Costa, L., Cardoso, F., Campa, C., Diaz, M. & Roy, R. (2004). A synthetic conjugate polysaccharide vaccine against Haemophilus influenzae type b. Science. 305(5683): p. 552-555. Wang, C.Y. & Walfield, A.M. (2005). Site-specific peptide vaccines for immunotherapy and immunization against chronic diseases, cancer, infectious diseases, and for veterinary applications. Vaccine. 23(17-18): p. 2049–2056. Yang, D., Holt, G.E., Rudolf, M.P., Velders, M.P., Brandt, R.M.P., Kwon, E.D. & Kast, W.M. (2001). Peptide Vaccines. In: New Vaccine Technologies. Chapter 12: p. 214-226. Zhong, W., Skwarczynski, M. & Toth, I. (2009) Lipid Core Peptide System for Gene, Drug, and Vaccine Delivery. Australian Journal of Chemistry. 62: p. 956–967. Zou, W.. & Jennings, H.J. (2009). Preparation of glycoconjugate vaccines. In: Carbohydrate-Based Vaccines and Immunotherapies. Chapter 2.

The Incident

This happened to me last weekend . I am bored at that day . I was sitting outside my house alone because all of my friends were out of town . I was getting bored so I decided to ride my bike out to nearby garden . When I got there , I saw nobody over there and I started feel curious at this moment . I sit on a meadow . 1 try to make myself more relax and take a nap . Suddenly , I heard roar of thunder and the sky started become bad weather ahead . Dark , smoky clouds threatened rain , It's rain cats and dogs . I try to run back to my house . When I stood alone outside my house .I saw a stranger woman in front of me . The woman face had heavily done up . The woman body like overweight . The woman hastily asked question to me . † Dampen do you have a umbrella † When he called my name , my brain was stun a few second . Eve been beating my brains out trying to think who Is she . My brain keep dodge out a lot of question mark . â€Å"Who are you ? Am I knew you ? Why you knew my name and I never seen you before. The woman angrily red face stared at me . When she stared at me , I feel afraid at that moment . The woman said : â€Å"l am your old classmate In secondary school I I am Joey !When she said â€Å"Joey † my brain flash to secondary school the girls who absolutely beautiful in the class . â€Å"L remembered you , Joey . How are you recently ? † â€Å"I'm fine , thank you . You look handsome Dampen . What are you doing after graduated at secondary school ? † â€Å"Thank you , Joey . I am still starting my new life and continue my certificate at university . How about you ? I heard from my friends you started looking Job at outside . Why don't you continue study at university ? I heard my friends you get result with flying colors † ‘Yup , I was looking job recently .My family income pretty bad so I have to save â€Å"Joey hope you dream come true . I heard from my classmate your father was not so well . Did you b ring him to clinic ? ‘ ‘Yes , I brought my father to clinic last week . My father get diabetes and high blood pressure and he still waiting his body check report . I still worries my father. â€Å"Joey , Don't worries everything goanna be alright your father no sick anymore will as right as rain . Do you want to take lunch at cafe ? ‘†II be there later . â€Å"Okay , let's go together . When we get there , before we go in the cafe . The scene of the accidents will never roger in my mind .The motorcyclist was following behind was taxi very closely . He was so impatient that he was trying to overtake the taxi even near a sharp bend . At that moment , there was an oncoming car . The taxi driver swerved to the roadside and I got a terrible Jolt . It was too late for the motorcyclist to avoid and dodge the car . The motorcycle ran against the bumper of the car and I heard a sound like † bang ! And the motorcycle smashed its windscreen . Joey and I freaked at that moment . After that , the motorcyclist somersaulted over the car and was found lying in a pool of blood .The driver , who was cut by the flying glass , was in a state of shock . All that happened in split second and fear overwhelmed us . Joey ask me to walk quickly over there to help them. â€Å"Dampen , let's go the motorcyclist need our helped ! ‘ I yelled around people to help them . â€Å"Help ! Help ! Help! † some people ran over here and help them. The taxi driver stopped his taxi and I quickly ran to the nearest telephone to inform the police and the hospital . When I ran backed the accident I saw a pool of blood and my heart pump started increase . I saw the motorcyclist his hand was broken arm and his face like feel exhausted .

High School Drug Abuse What Do You Do essays

High School Drug Abuse What Do You Do essays According to a study conducted by the University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research, among the graduating class of 1997, 54.3 percent of students had used an illicit drug by the time they reached their senior year of high school: a dramatic increase from the once 40.7 percent in 1992. The study also reported an increase among high school seniors from 27.1 percent in 1992 to 42.4 percent in 1997, that had used an illicit drug in that past year. There was also an increase from 14.4 percent (1992) to 26.2 percent (1997) of use in the past month. And due to the addictive nature of drugs, many of these young students will continue using them throughout their life. Drug abuse has become an increasing problem in the nation's high schools today. The question is, how is it prevented? Drug testing has been a successful way of controlling this, and the problems associated with it. It is true though, that the most effective way begins in the home, when children are young and just learning about drugs and their hazardous health risks. Other programs deal with educating students about the effects and dangers that will effect a person for the rest of their life. These programs also teach about the legal issues involved. But what do you do for high school students, after it is too late to carry out these programs. And often the programs have been carried out, but students ignored the warning and council, and end up breaking the law. What do you do then? Many schools are implementing drug testing programs, which have been proven to successfully decrease the amount of drug abuse that occurs in schools. High School drug testing has become a very controversial topic in many communities across the nation. Many students and parents are arguing that drug testing is a violation of the rights of a US citizen as designated in the 4th amendment of the Constitution. But, in the Supreme Court case of Vernonia School District v. Wayne Act...

The Complete Prep Guide for SAT Writing Grammar, Strategies, and Practice

The Complete Prep Guide for SAT Writing Grammar, Strategies, and Practice SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips This complete guide includes everything you need to know about SAT Writing.As experienced tutors, we’re all too familiar with the shortcomings of most test-prep materials, so we've created our own free guide to SAT Writing,which we believe is the best available (even compared to expensive books from big-name companies!). To create this guide, we carefully analyzed real SATs, read the best SAT books we could find, and thought carefully about what you actually need to know to succeed on SAT Writing.Rather than trying to condense all the info we came up with into one page (which would be insanely overwhelming!), we’ve created this article to serve as a table of contents and take you through the different parts of the SAT Writing section. The first part of our guide covershigh-level ideas about the test,such as general structure and important big-picture concepts. The second part outlinesevery grammar skill you’ll need to knowand the best strategies for approaching SAT Writing questions. The final section rounds upall kinds of strategies and tipsthat you can use both on the test and as you study. It also includes detailed explanations of how to plan your prep time, and suggestions for where you can find further practice tests and study material, should you need them. How you use this information will depend on what you’re hoping to get out of it. This guide is designed to work as a complete walkthrough of the SAT Writing section,the same as you would find in a test-prep book- simply read through each guide and practice the skills they explain. If, however, you’re only looking to brush up on specific topics or find some helpful tips for test day, just scroll through this page to find what you need! High-Level Guidance for SAT Writing One of the key ideas you must understand about the SAT is that it's completely different from the tests you take in school.SAT Writing might test some of the same grammar rules that you've learned in the past, but it does so in its own unique way. In order to do well on SAT Writing, you need to understand how it's structured. These guides will help you do so. What Is SAT Writing and Language? 5 Tips to Excel What’s Tested on the SAT Writing Section? Grammar and Questions The first step to succeeding on SAT Writing is knowing what’s on it. These two guides outline all the basics, including how the SAT Writing section is formatted, what kinds of reading passages it has, and which grammar rules it tests. What Is SAT Evidence-Based Reading and Writing? On the SAT, Writing makes up half of your Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW) score (the other half is the Reading section). This guide goes over how the two sections are scored together, and gives you a few tips on how to excel on both of them. The New SAT Writing: What's Changing? The SAT underwent a big redesign back in 2016, which included a makeover to the SAT Writing section. If you're curious about how the current Writing structure differs from the old one, check out this guide. The Best Way to Read the SAT Writing Passages Since all SAT Writing questions are based on passages, it's important to be able toread passages both fast and effectively. We explain the best ways to approach passages on SAT Writing so that you'll save time and give yourself a better shot at choosing the right answers. The 12 SAT Grammar Rules You Must Know The main point of the SAT Writing section is to test your understanding of English grammar. Read this guide to learn the 12 most important grammar rules likely to appear on test day. Words in Context: Key SAT Reading and Writing Strategies This question type (and subscore) on SAT Writing asks you to improve word choice and syntax in sentences selected from passages. Use this guide to learn how often you can expect to see these questions on the test and the best way to approach them. Command of Evidence: 3 Key SAT Writing Strategies Another subscore on SAT Writing is Command of Evidence. These questions deal with choosing evidence to support your answers and making sure the answers you select accurately reflect the information in the passage. Organization Questions on SAT Writing: Tips and Tricks These Writing questions ask you where to place a certain sentence or paragraph in a passage. But knowing where a certain sentence fits can be difficult. This guide covers how to recognize these questions and offers a step-by-step approach you can use on the test. Add/Delete Questions on SAT Writing: 6 Steps to Answer With these questions, you must figure out whether to add or delete a sentence from a passage. This article touches on what these questions look like on the SAT and gives clear guidance on how to solve them. How Often Is "No Error" Correct on SAT Writing? The "No Error" option is a source of stress for many students. Make sure you know how frequently you can expect it be the right answer on SAT Writing. SAT Writing Grammar and Punctuation Skills Don't fall into the trap of thinking you can just listen for the errors because you speak English, after all. SAT Writing tests specific grammar and punctuation topics in specific ways, and you need to know them to do well on the test. We've written guides for each topic on the test (listed roughly in order of their importance). The Complete Guide to SAT Grammar Rules Above, we gave you a link to our guide on the 12 most important grammar rules- but these aren't all the grammar rules you'll see on the test. This guide summarizes every possible grammatical structure you can get on SAT Writing. SAT Punctuation: Tips for Commas, Colons, and Dashes In addition to grammar, punctuation plays a major part on SAT Writing. Read this guide to learn all the most important comma, colon, and dashes rules you'll need to know, as well as how to spot them on the test. Possessives and Apostrophes on SAT Writing: 4 Key Tips Aside from commas, colons, and dashes, you'll need to know how to use apostrophes correctly if you wish to get a high score on SAT Writing. This guide expands on the punctuation one above by specifically going over how to identify apostrophe problems on the test. Complete Parts of Speech for SAT Writing SAT Writing doesn’t explicitly ask you to identify parts of speech, but you’ll need to know the grammatical basics in this article in order to understand the rest of our skill guides. Start here to begin building your foundation in grammar. SAT Writing: Word Choice and Diction Errors Diction questions, which deal withpickingthe right word for a given context,pop up often on SAT Writing. These questions are tricky because the exact words they test vary. Transition Questions on SAT Writing: Tips and Examples Remember how your teacher used to tell you to use transitions to connect different ideas? Well, the same basic principle applies to the SAT. These questions require you to choose the correct transitional word (such as "therefore," "however," etc.). Take a look at this guide to learn what kinds of transition-related words and questions will be on the test. Sentence Fragments and Run-ons in SAT Writing: Tips and Questions Fragments and run-on sentencesappear a loton the SAT Writing section.Learn the telltale signs of these types of errors with this guide. Wordiness and Redundancy in SAT Writing Questions One of the key rules is that given more than one grammatically correct answer,the right answer will likely be the most concise one.Make sure you know what this means in the context of SAT Writing. Verb Tenses and Forms on SAT Writing Verb issues in general, and verb forms specifically, are also tested on SAT Writing. It’s especially important to make sure you understand how to use gerunds (â€Å"ing† verbs such as â€Å"jumping† and â€Å"celebrating†). Subject-Verb Agreement on SAT Writing: Strategies and Practice The other type of verb error is subject-verb agreement issues, which occur when the subject is plural but the verb is singular, or vice versa (e.g., â€Å"he talk† or â€Å"they is yelling†). This guide walks you through the different ways this error can appear on the test, many of which you might not expect. Pronoun Agreement on SAT Writing: Tips and Practice Pronoun errors come in a few different forms, but, generally, they occur when you use a pronoun that doesn’t match the noun it’s referring to, such as in the sentence "The doctor couldn’t believe their cooking class was canceled" ("their" should be "his" or "her"). Pronoun errors can be among the hardest to spot because we routinely misuse pronouns in everyday English. Pronoun Case on SAT Writing: Tips and Practice Questions Pronoun-case questions, which deal with the difference between subject (â€Å"I†) and object (â€Å"me†) pronouns, appear less often on SAT Writing than pronoun-agreement ones do. Nonetheless, it’s important to know how to answer these questions, especially if you want a high score. Parallelism for SAT Writing: Tips and Practice Parallel structure questions require you to recognize that all the words or phrases in a list need to be in the same form.Though they aren’t the most common topic on SAT Writing, they’re still important to know. Faulty Modifiers on SAT Writing: Grammar Rule Prep Faulty modifiers, which include both danglingmodifiersand the less common misplaced one, occur when a modifying word or phrase is placed in the wrong part of a sentence. They are one of the trickiest topics on SAT Writing because we often make these mistakes when we speak and write. All the SAT Idioms You Need: Complete List Idioms can be a couple of different types of phrases (including common sayings such as "one step forward, two step backs"). But on SAT Writing, the term refers to questions about consistent preposition, conjunction, and gerund use (e.g., "I’m excited to go to Disneyland† rather than â€Å"I’m excited going at Disneyland"). Illogical Comparisons: The Weirdest Topic on SAT Writing Faulty comparisons are another weird error you might not be familiar with. They occur when you compare two things that aren’t of the same type, such as â€Å"Juan’s favorite band† and â€Å"Tim.† Adjectives vs Adverbs in SAT Writing: Practice + Tips Occasionally on SAT Writing, you’ll see an adverb (e.g., â€Å"sadly†) used where an adjective (e.g., â€Å"sad†) is needed, or vice versa. This guide explains how to spot these errors as well as those with superlatives and comparatives. Relative Pronouns Questions specifically about relative pronouns (who, which, where, etc.) aren't super common, but these words play important roles in other types of questions. Make sure you understand how to use them correctly. Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today! Building an SAT Writing Study Plan Now that you've got a basic understanding of the test, you probably want to start doing some SAT Writing practice. Great! The guides in this section will help you understand how to make your SAT Writing prep as efficient and effective as possible. SAT Writing Prep: The Best Methods and Strategies If you’re studying for the SAT independently, it can be hard to figure out how to best organize your SAT Writing prep. This guide lays out everything you must know to study effectively on your own. Where to Find the Best SAT Writing Practice Tests Complete Official SAT Practice Tests, Free Links All the prep time in the world won’t do you any good if you’re using bad materials. We’ve collected all the best SAT Writing practice tests, for free and for sale, and explained what qualities to look for and what to avoid in practice materials. You can also practice with any official SAT practice test. The Best Prep Books for SAT Writing Best SAT Prep Books 2018 If you’re looking for further reading on grammar rules or how to read passages, these two guides have got you covered. We’ve reviewed the best SAT prep books out there, for both the Writing section in particular and the test as a whole. Use these books to guide your study sessions. SAT Writing Tips and Tricks In this section, I've collected all our best test-day tips and general advice to help you ace SAT Writing.Read these to understand how best to approach questions on this section, and get advice on how to attack tricky questions and how to navigate the unique structure of the test. The Top 9 SAT Writing Strategies You Must Use This article rounds up key big-picture strategies for studying SAT Writing. For the best results, be sure to incorporate them into your practice. How to Improve Your SAT Writing Score: 8 Key Strategies If you’re struggling with a low score, this guide can help. Here, a perfect SAT scorer offers histop eight strategiesfor raising a low SAT Writing score closer to (or even beyond) the 600 (30) range. How to Get 800 on SAT Writing: 9 Strategies From a Perfect Scorer Aiming for a super high Writing score? This guide, written by a 1600 scorer, explains thetop nine strategiesyou need for a perfect score on SAT Writing. You'll also learnhelpful tips for keeping yourself motivated and focused. The 8 Most Common SAT Writing Mistakes Students Make There are a few mistakes that routinely bring down students’ SAT Writing scores. Make sure you know how to avoid them with this guide. The Top 7 SAT Writing Tips to Boost Your Score These suggestions can help raise your SAT Writing score even if you’re taking the test tomorrow, but they’ll be even more helpful if you use them every time you practice. How to Analyze Data Graphics on SAT Reading and Writing On SAT Writing, you're guaranteed to see at least one data chart; thus, it's extremely important to be able to read charts and other data graphics. This guide tells you how to do just that on both the Reading and Writing sections. How to Ace SAT Writing for Math and Science People If grammar and punctuation aren't your fortes, you'll need to come up with a different approach to SAT Writing. This guide, which specifically targets math and science whizzes, offerstons of helpful tipsfor attacking the Writing section head-on and getting the score you want. The 12 Hardest SAT Writing Questions Ever This article explains the answers to some of the hardest SAT Writing questions. If you’re shooting for a score below 700 on EBRW, you will likely want to skip these types of questions. But if you’re aiming for a high score, make sure you know how to attack even the most challenging questions. What's Next? You hopefully have a good idea what your next step should be: practice!Reading about the SAT can only teach you so much. To really understand SAT Writing, you have try out these strategies and tips on a real test. Before you go over your practice test, make sure you know how to review missed questions. The fastestway to improve is tolearn from your mistakes. This guide includeseverything you need to build an effectiveSAT Writing program for yourself, but if you're feeling overwhelmed by the idea of doing it all on your own,consider giving our prep program a try.Built by Harvard grads and SAT full scorers, our online SAT program learns all your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics and then customizes your program to your needs to give youthe most effective prep possible. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Writing and grammar lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. 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Audit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Audit - Essay Example This has resulted in the emergence of the phrase that â€Å"auditors are the dogs that did not bark during the crisis†, and thus their role in helping avert financial crisis through detecting and reporting any anomaly or perceived misrepresentation of the financial truthfulness of organizations has been put to question (Fielding, 2011 p35). Therefore, considering that there are four major auditing firms that operate globally and monopolizes the European Union regions, namely PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst & Young, Deloitte and KPMG, concerns have always arisen regarding the collusion between the auditing firms and their clients to give unfair and unbalanced financial reporting information and opinion (Clifford, n.p.). This has necessitated the need for introducing reforms that would see the already existing collusion, as well as the conflict of interest in auditing, effectively addressed (IFAC, 2013 p36). EC audit reform proposals and the underlying areas of concern that they s eek to address First, the EC audit reform proposes a system of compulsory rotation of audit firms amongst their clients (Crump, 2011 n.p.). This proposal has arisen from the fact that; it has been noted that many firms and organization have enlisted the services of a single audit firm for many years, even running for decades, something that has made it possible for the audit firms and their clients to develop a collusion mechanism that prevents the auditors from applying prudence in auditing the transactions and the financial reports of their longstanding clients (Irvine, 2013, n.p.). The effect of this has always been unbalanced and misleading audit reports, which are only proven wrong, when such firms are eventually netted in big financial scandal or when the firms are forced to close down, due to financial problems, despite the fact that their previous reporting and audit reports have been indicating favorable financial positions (Garcia, 2005 p56). Consequently the EU has introd uced a proposal requiring that the client firms will have to change their auditors after a maximum period of 6 years, or a maximum of 9 years, on condition that the client firms have enlisted the services of joint auditing services, since there is a potential of the audit firms increasing the quality of the auditing done, when the firm is audited by two different firms (IFAC, 2013 p42). Thus, this proposal was meant to introduce measures that would encourage joint services, even where it is has not been made obligatory; to avert the problem of conflict of interests and collusion, amongst the auditing firms and their client firms (Orlik, 2011 n.p.). Mandatory audit tendering The EC reform proposal also introduces a proposal for the audit client firms for all public-interest entities to mandatory introduce obligatory open and transparent selection procedures for the new firms (Lovells & Banerjee, 2011 p44). Under this requirement, the EC also proposes that the audit committee should e ffectively be involved in the selection procedure of the new auditors, to ensure the prudence of the selection process, since the auditors selected also influences the nature of the reporting and financial opinion given by the audit firms